- CLASSIFICATION OF FISH ON THE BASIS OF FAT CONTENT
a. Lean fish contain less than 2.5 percent fat and are mild flavored, with tender white or pale flesh. Lean cooking fish are best steamed, poached, microwaved or fried.
Examples:
- bass (sea or striped)
- burbot (freshwater cod)
- cod
- cusk
- flounder
b. Medium-fat fish, with 2.5 to 5 percent fat content, are suitable for all fish cooking methods.
Examples:
- anchovy
- bluefish
- catfish
- croaker
- mullet
c. Fatty fish have a fat content greater than 5 percent and generally have a firmer texture, more pronounced flavor and deeper color. Fatty fish are best broiled, grilled, baked or microwaved.
Examples:
- butterfish
- carp, eel, herring
- mackerel (Atlantic, Pacific and Spanish)
- pompano, sablefish
- salmon (chinook, coho and sockeye)
Reference:
http://myfishcook.com/eating-healthy-tips/fish-classifications-for-cooking/
- FISH COOKERY
Fish must be well cooked to be palatable and wholesome. It is cooked sufficiently when the flesh separates easily from the bones. Fish is always tender. It is most essential that fish should be perfectly fresh, thoroughly cooked, and carefully cleaned. If under-done, it is not eatable; if cooked too long, it is dry and loses most of its flavor.When perfectly fresh, the eyes of fish are bright and clear, the flesh is firm and odorless.
Fish may be divided into three clases, namely, white, oily and shell fish. The white and oily fish may be served in place of meat; and in general, the methods of cooking fish are the same as those used in meat cookery.
Slices of fish require but little attention. They should be carefully wiped with a damp cloth, or let the cold water from the faucet run over them, then wipe dry. Never allow fish to stand in water after it has been sliced. Whole fish, even when cleaned at the market, will require a thorough washing to remove all the blood from the inside of the backbone.
White fish is not so nourishing as oily fish. In this type of fish all of the oil is contained in the liver, making the flesh somewhat dry. A rich sauce usually accompanies fish of this kind to supply the lacking fat.
The oily fish, such as salmon, mackerel, etc., have the oil distributed throughout the flesh. Therefore this type of fish is more nourishing than the white fish. Both kinds are useful in the diet of the convalescent or persons suffering from indigestion, although the white fish is preferable for an invalid.
In composition, fish is much like meat; but unlike meat in that it must be eaten soon after it is killed, as it deteriorates very quickly. It is difficult to keep fish in the house either before or after cooking, as the odor is very penetrating and other foods absorb it. If put into the refrigerator uncovered it contaminates all other foods. But if placed in a covered pail which is kept for this purpose, the odor will not penetrate to the other foods.
All of the various methods of cooking may be applied to fish – baking, frying, sauteing, boiling, steaming and broiling. The principal thing is to be sure that the fish is thoroughly cooked and still not over-cooked. It is really important to keep a set of utensils to use for cooking fish only, as the flavor is so distinct that even the most careful washing does not always remove it. A frying pan seems to be the most difficult utensil from which to remove this odor.
Frying, sauteing and broiling are the most popular methods of preparing fish. All fish are greatly improved for serving if the bones are removed. A boned fish, stuffed and baked, and served with a suitable sauce, is most appetizing and will usually be relished even by persons who ordinarily refuse fish.
Then, too, many attractive dishes can be made from the left-over fish, and to many persons these dishes appeal more than when the fish is freshly cooked.
It is less wasteful to steam fish than it is to boil it. However, it is possible when boiling to add flavoring which will make the fish more palatable. In boiling a fish add 1 teaspoon of salt and 1 tablespoon of vinegar to every 2 quarts of water and use enough water to entirely cover the fish. Vinegar tends to make the flesh firm. Soup vegetables, a clove or a bit of bay leaf may also be added to the water in which the fish is cooked. Do not pour cold water over the fish, as it will draw out the juices; have the water hot but not boiling, then bring to the boiling point and simmer gently until the flesh will leave the bones and is tender. Ten minutes’ cooking may be allowed for each pound of fish, after the water has reached the simmering point.
Fish will hold its shape and can be handled easier if wrapped in a piece of cheese cloth before placing in the hot water. A rack or plate should be placed on the bottom of the kettle to prevent the fish from sticking and possibly burning. Always serve a salad (green preferred) with a French dressing or slices of lemon with all fish dishes. If sauces are used, they should be seasoned with lemon juice.
Reference:
http://chestofbooks.com/food/recipes/De-Graf/Fish-Cookery.html
- MEAT COOKERY
Meat is cooked to soften connective tissue, to develop flavor, to improve appearance and to destroy bacteria or other organisms. The method of cooking depends on the kind and quality of the meat to be cooked. Only tender cuts of meat can be cooked successfully by dry heat. Although as desirable in nutritive value and flavor, the tough cuts of meat require moist heat and long, slow cooking to make them palatable. Since meat is largely protein, even the tenderest cuts may be toughened and hardened by too high a temperature.
Reference:
http://chestofbooks.com/food/recipes/American-Woman-Cook-Book/Methods-Of-Cooking-Meat.html
METHODS OF TENDERIZING TOUGH MEAT CUTS
Tip #1: Break Out the Meat Mallet
Meat mallets usually have two sides. One is flat, while the other has spikes. The spiked side of a meat mallet can be used to tenderize tough cuts of meat. It’s also a great way to relieve frustration. Cover the meat with a piece of plastic wrap and pound the meat with the mallet until it starts to breakdown. An alternative to this method is the meat tenderizer, which is a gadget that has a series of spikes that press through the meat.
Tip #2: Marinade the Meat
Marinades with acid are a great way to tenderize meat because they break down the meat. They also don’t take long to take effect. Steaks and beef tips can be placed in a large zip top bag and marinated for as little as 30 minutes, depending on the acid level of the marinade. Less acidic marinades, such as Italian dressing, will require at least two hours, but do help tenderize tough cuts of meat.
Tip #3: Cook the Meat Low and Slow
Tough cuts of meat do not take kindly to high heat. In fact, high heat makes tough cuts of meat tougher. This is because the high heat causes the tendons of the meat to contract. The best approach to cooking tough cuts of meat is to cook them in a slow cooker, slow roast them in the oven or over indirect heat on the grill.
Tip #4: Cut Against the Grain
You can follow all the tips listed above and still end up with tough meat. This final tip is critical. You must cut against the grain is order for a piece of tough meat to be tender. Doing so breaks down the tendons of the meat into more manageable pieces making the meat easier to chew.
Reference:
http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/5775774/how_to_tenderize_tough_cuts_of_meat.html?cat=22
- CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES
Vegetables are classified according to which part of the plant is eaten. Some vegetables may fall into more than one category when more than one part of the plant is eaten, e.g. both the roots and leaves of beetroot can be eaten.
| bulbs |
Usually grow just below the surface of the ground and produce a fleshy, leafy shoot above ground. Bulbs usually consist of layers or clustered segments. |
e.g. onion, shallot, garlic, spring onion, leek, fennel |
| flowers |
The edible flowers of certain vegetables. |
e.g. cauliflower, broccoli, gaai laan (Chinese sprouting broccoli), broccoflower, globe artichoke |
| fruits |
Vegetable fruit are fleshy and contain seeds. |
e.g. egg plant, capsicum, courgette, okra, pumpkin, tomato, choko, scallopini |
| fungi |
When referring to vegetables, fungi are commonly known as mushrooms. |
e.g. button, flats, shitake, oyster, gourmet brown, wood ear, enokitaki, truffle |
| leaves |
The edible leaves of plants. |
e.g. bok choy, cabbage, lettuce, silver beet, spinach, witloof, puha |
| roots |
Usually a long or round-shaped taproot. |
e.g. carrot, turnip, beetroot, swede, radish, parsnip, celeriac |
| seeds |
Also know as legumes, seeds are usually obtained from pods. The pod is sometimes eaten along with the seed. |
e.g. broad been, French bean, pea, snow pea, snake beans, butter beans |
| stems |
The edible stalks of plants when the stalk is the main part of the vegetable. |
e.g. asparagus, celery, kohlrabi |
| tubers |
Vegetables which grow underground on the root of a plant. |
e.g. potato, kumara, yam, taro, Jerusalem artichoke, Maori potato. |
Reference:
http://organicvegetableclub.com/clofve.html
RULES IN COOKING FRESH VEGETABLES
Use the following tips to prepare fresh vegetables for steaming or microwaving:
- Remove bruised, wilted, yellowish, or tough sections of the vegetable.
- Trim sparingly to avoid excessive loss of food and nutrients.
- If you pare root vegetables, such as carrots and potatoes, before cooking, make parings thin. Cover potatoes with water to prevent darkening if held after paring. Long soaking is not recommended because some nutrients dissolve in water.
- Wash vegetable thoroughly before cooking.
- Use plenty of water for greens; lift them from the water to let sand and grit settle.
- Soak fresh Brussel sprouts and broccoli in cold water for a short time to remove insects.
The best cooking method for fresh vegetables is “steaming” on top of the stove on in the microwave. The standard boiling method often overcooks vegetables; they become limp and sometimes lose their bright green color. Vegetables cooked until they are “crisp-tender” instead of “limp” have:
- more tempting textures,
- more nutrients,
- better flavor,
- intact fiber.
Tips for steaming fresh vegetables (On top of the stove):
- Put enough water in a saucepan so that it does not touch the bottom of the steamer basket; approximately 1/2 to 1 inch of water.
- Bring water to a boil.
- Place vegetables in a steamer basket:
- whole vegetables should be in a single layer, and
- cut up vegetables should be layered no more than 2 inches deep.
- Place steamer in pan; cover the pan tightly. Reduce heat so the water continues to boil.
- Add more water during cooking, if necessary.
In the microwave oven:
- Arrange vegetables in a microwave-safe dish so that the thicker portions lay toward the outside of the dish. Or, for more even cooking, cut into same-size pieces.
- Add 2 to 3 tablespoons of water.
- Cover the dish with a lid or waxed or plastic paper; it should be loose so that steam can escape. If cooking whole unpeeled vegetables and fruits , such as potatoes, yams, or apples, pierce them several times with a fork so they do not burst while cooking. Place them at least 1 inch apart on a paper towel in the microwave.
- Microwave vegetables on HIGH. Stir, rearrange vegetables, or rotate the dish halfway through cooking.
- Remove dish from the microwave at the minimum cooking time and let stand for the amount of time indicated to allow them to finish cooking. Remove the lids very carefully (to avoid steam burns) and then check for doneness. If the vegetables are too crisp, continue cooking and checking frequently.
- If steaming greens such a spinach or collards, place wet leaves in microwave-safe dish, cover and cook; there is no need to add more water.
- If steaming corn on the cob, peel husks back and remove silk; arrange like “spokes” in the dish.
Reference:
http://www.four-h.purdue.edu/foods/Cooking%20fresh%20vegetalbes.htm
- FRUIT PREPARATION
Most fruits are best raw. Then their acids and salts are in their most available form. Those who become uncomfortable after eating acid fruit may know that they have abused their digestive organs and they should take it as an indication to reduce their food intake, simplify their diet, masticate better and eat more raw food. Those who overeat of starch or partake of much alcohol cultivate irritable stomachs, which object to the bracing fruit juices.
For the sake of a change fruits may be cooked. The more plainly they are cooked the better. Always use sugar in moderation, no matter whether the fruit is to be stewed or baked.
To stew fruit, clean and if necessary peel. Stew in sufficient water until tender. When almost done add what sugar is needed. When stewed thus less sugar is required than if the sweetening is done at the start.
Stewed fruit can be sweetened by adding raisins, figs or dates. This is relished by many. Figs and dates stewed by them are too sweet for many tastes. This can be remedied by making a sauce of figs or dates
Unfortunately, most of our dried fruit is sulphured. Sulphurous acid fumes are employed, and you may be sure that this does the fruit no good. If you can get unsulphured fruit, do so. The sulphuring process is popular because it acts as a preservative and it is profitable because it allows the fruit to retain more water without spoiling than would be possible otherwise.
“Canning fruit”: It is very easy to can fruit, but it requires care. Select fruit that is not overripe. The work room should be clean and so should the cans and covers. It is not sufficient to rinse the cans in clean water. Both the jars and the covers should be taken from boiling water immediately before being used.
Use only sound fruit, cook it sufficiently, adding the sugar when the fruit is almost done. If you cook the fruit in syrup, do not have a heavy syrup. Put into jar while piping hot, filling the jar as full as possible, put on the cover immediately, turning until it fits snugly; turn jar upside down for a few hours to see if it leaks; tighten again and put in cool place.
An even better way, especially for berries, is to fill the jar with fruit, pour syrup over them, put the jars into receptacle containing water and let this water boil until the berries are done; then fill the jars properly and seal. Some berries that lose their color when cooked in syrup retain it when treated this way.
Canned fruits are not as good as the fresh ones, but better than none. Be sure that they are not fermenting when opened. When proper care is exercised a spoiled jar is a rarity. If there is any doubt about the fruit, scald and cool before using. This destroys the ferments.
Fresh fruit is the best. Next comes fruit recently stewed or baked. If other fruit can not be obtained, get good dried fruit and stew it.
Reference:
http://chestofbooks.com/health/nutrition/R-L-Alsaker/Maintaining-Health/Fruit-Preparation.html
COOKING METHODS
There are various ways to cook fruit, and certain considerations should be made beforehand as fruit tends to be delicate, and can disintegrate easily
1. Generally, boiling is too harsh a method for most fruits, gentle simmering preserves the texture and shape of fruits. When cooking soft and stone fruits, simply warm them in hot liquid by placing them in a pan of boiled water.
2. Poaching fruit is a similar method, and is a common way to cook fruit such as pears. Bring the water to a simmer and then gently lower the fruit into the pan with a spoon.
3. Immediately reduce from the heat so the liquid is barely bubbling, and cook until the fruit is tender.
4. You could also stew your fruit, where the saucepan is covered and the fruit is cooked in just enough liquid to cover it. This method helps keep it moist. Nectarines are delicious when stewed.
5. Microwaving is one of the best ways to prepare vegetables. Boiling probably is the worst way. When you microwave, use little water and be sure to cover the container to keep the steam in the dish. Experiment to find the least amount of time to microwave the vegetable to heat it through completely.
6. Stir-fry – because it is quick – also is one of the more healthful ways to prepare vegetables. Remember to avoid cooking until the vegetables are mushy.
Reference:
http://www.fruitexpert.co.uk/CookingFruit.html
http://www.fruitandveggieguru.com/ExtraSections/ProduceandYourHealth/CookingFruitsandVegetables/tabid/94/Default.aspx
- SOME PROBLEMS IN POULTRY COOKERY
Vernon determined the shrinkage in dressing and cooking poultry, using fryers, roasters, and hens. Lowe and Vernon determined the dressing and cooking losses for broilers, fryers, roasters, capons, and hens. All the poultry was roasted except the fryers and broilers. The broilers were broiled under a gas flame in the oven, the fryers were dredged in flour and fried in fat. In frying, the lean fryers absorbed fat, and the fat ones lost fat.
In roasting poultry, one is confronted with the problem of cooking tender and less tender muscles at the same time. As a result, when the breast is at its prime, the thigh and leg muscles may be slightly tough and, vice versa, when the thigh and leg are cooked sufficiently to soften the connective tissue, the breast is past its prime and is becoming dry.
Another problem in cooking poultry is the skin. If it is moist and tender, the appearance is less attractive because it is not so brown. When the skin is not consumed this point is not important.
The degree of fatness and its distribution, the degree of post-mortem changes or ripening, the age, and the size may affect the cooking time and losses of roasters. In addition, breed, sex, and the feed the bird has received may have some effect on these factors
Reference:
http://chestofbooks.com/food/science/Experimental-Cookery/Poultry.html
- CULINARY PURPOSE OF FAT
It is impossible to be a good cook without understanding and effectively using fats as ingredients in daily culinary activity. The category “fats” includes both fats which are solid at room temperature, e.g. butter, margarine, and lard, as well as fats which are liquid at room temperature, usually called oils, (e.g. canola oil, olive oil). Fats have a myriad of functions in the kitchen. They add flavor. They tenderize baked goods. They provide texture and richness. Fats act as a preservative (think of tuna in oil, or goat cheese packed in oil), and are essential in most marinades. Fats are used in almost all cooking techniques, including frying, baking, roasting, pastry making, and sauce making
When choosing which fat to use, consider two different characteristics. The first is flavor. In general, butter and unrefined oils provide the most flavor. Unrefined oils are oils extracted from the nuts, seeds, etc. without the use of either heat or solvents. Extra virgin olive oil and the nut oils (walnut, hazelnut, etc) are the best known examples. Refined oils are usually bland in taste and are chosen for one of the reasons listed below.
The second characteristic is texture. This is especially important in baking, where fats are required to produce a fluffy or flaky and tender product. In baking, the fat (usually either butter or vegetable shortening like Crisco) can act both as a leavening agent (causing the dough to rise) and as a tenderizer. In pastries such as cream puffs, the fat particles melt in the heat of the oven, producing steam that leavens. In pie pastry, the same melting action produces a flaky crust. In cakes, where both steam and often carbon dioxide (produced by baking soda and/or powder) act as joint leaveners, it is necessary to have well-creamed fat to create empty cell pockets. These pockets hold the steam and CO2, allowing the cake to rise.
Fats’ ability to tenderize comes from dispersing the fat particles, which allows them to coat the starch molecules. This coating prevents too much gluten from forming, thereby keeping the pastry from getting tough, (“gluten” is the protein that provides structure for baked goods). In general, solid fats are almost always used for baking, as oil will tend to collect in one place and not disperse throught the batter, producing a grainy texture. Oils, also, can not be creamed. The only time oil is usually used in lieu of a solid fat in baking is for quick breads or cakes. Here, stirring is kept to a minimum to prevent gluten from forming and denseness is often a desired quality.
Reference:
http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/cooking_basics/87244/2
- GENERAL RULES FOR FRYING AND IT’S PRINCIPLES
· Have the fire clear and hot.
· Make the food in to suitable sizes and shapes and see that it is free from cracks.
· Apply coating evenly. The breadcrumbs used should not be coarse.
· Remove any excess and firmly press on loose dipping in flour.
· When frying chicken and dry off all moisture before dipping in flour.
· Use fat with a high smoke point. The fat must be quite still and at the right temperature required, before the food is put in.
· Do not put in too many pieces of food at the same time, as this will lower the temperature.
· See that the temperature is not increased for increased output.
· Follow a time and temperature chart.
· Fry to a golden brown on both sides turning over the food if necessary.
· Drain well on absorbent paper and serve attractively.
· Cover fats left in the fryer between frying periods and maintain at a temperature not higher than 200 degree farenheight.
· Once fat has been used for frying, strain and store in cans in a refrigerator.
· Replenish the original volume with fresh fat after each frying period.
· Fat begins to thicken, getting to be what is known as polymerization and such fats are more viscous than fresh fat. Since there are no known food additives for inhibiting this condition, fat that has reached this stage is no longer fit for use.
· Fats that are used for frying should have high stability. Normally fats themselves do not get rancid during the frying process but rancidity in the product affects the keeping quality and acceptability of the product. For commercial purpose fat of over 100 hours stability is desired for continuous trouble-free frying.
· Cooking at too high a temperature, which carbonizes loose breadcrumbs and small particles of fried food, causes darkening of the fat. Such fat should be strained and replenished with fresh fat before being used again.
Reference:
http://unsurpassable-hidalgo.blogspot.com/2008/05/general-rules-of-frying.html
- ADVANTAGES OF STEAMING METHOD IN GENERAL FOOD PREPARATION
The advantages of cooking with steam are obvious: the products conserve not just their natural smell, taste, form and color, but also most of the microelements and vitamins that they contain when raw. As you do not need any oils or other add-ons when cooking with steam, all the minerals and vitamins stay within the meal as the items cook, conserving their quality and avoiding you the extra calories. Steam cooking keeps the food temperature under 212 Fahrenheit, which is ideal for conserving the properties of the food cooked as is.
Absolutely all products can be cooked with steam, except mushrooms, since much water is needed to keep them from drying out and becoming dehydrated during the process. Fruits and vegetables cooked with steam should be high quality, as any creases, bumps or imperfections will tend to attract excess of water, resulting in uneven cooking and even some loss of flavor. The same is true if you try to cut out parts of them that seem to be old or mashed. As a general rule, full veggies will cook better than chopped or sliced ones.
From the medical point of view, not only will your waist thank you, but also your heart will. The low fat content of foods cooked this way can go a long way to prevent problems associated with the typical American diet. Your hair, skin and nails are likely to improve in the process (as a result of the higher level of vitamins), your immune system will become stronger and your overall energy will increase. For people over 40, steam cooking is the perfect way to prevent heart disease, high cholesterol and even ulcers. For children, whose oil addiction is not formed yet, is a great way to avoid junk food and keep their weight in check.
Aside from the health advantages, steam cooking is also a great option if you don’t have the time or the energy to cook by other methods. Since little effort is involved in the actual cooking process, steaming your food can be done while you’re busy preparing something else, setting the table or even watching TV.
Reference:
http://hubpages.com/hub/The-Benefits-of-Steam-Cooking
Submitted To:
Mrs. Lilli Ann Emaas
Instuctor
